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Castra () is a Latin language term used during the Roman Republic and Roman Empire for a military 'camp', and castrum () for a 'Fortification'. (2025). 9781947822047, Ginn & Company. ISBN 9781947822047 The plural form, castra, had a possible meaning of "tents".
In current English use, the peculiarity of the noun having different meanings in the singular and plural is sometimes less rigorously observed, given that both meanings indicate fortified positions used by the Roman army.
A castrum was the fortified base of a Roman legion, a detachment thereof, or of auxiliary units, providing secure locations for training, administration, and defense. The army used a variety of fortified positions, both in size and function, ranging from temporary marching camps ( castra aestiva) to large, permanent fortresses ( castra stativa) that housed entire legions. They were typically designed with a standardized layout, including a rectangular plan, defensive walls, gates, and internal streets arranged in a grid pattern, reflecting Roman military discipline and engineering expertise. Permanent castra often became the foundations for towns and cities across the Roman Empire, many of which still bear traces of their Roman origins in their modern layouts and names. These fortifications played a crucial role in the expansion and maintenance of Roman power, enabling the army to project control over vast territories and respond quickly to threats.
If this is the civilian interpretation, the military version must be "military reservation", a piece of land cut off from the common land around it and modified for military use. All castra must be defended by works, often no more than a stockade, for which the soldiers carried stakes, and a ditch. The castra could be prepared under attack within a hollow square or behind a battle line. Considering that the earliest military shelters were made of hide or cloth, and all but the most permanent bases housed the men in tents placed in quadrangles and separated by numbered streets, one castrum may well have acquired the connotation of tent.
In Latin the term castrum is much more frequently used as a proper name for geographical locations: e.g., Castrum Album, Inuus]], Castrum Novum, Castrum Truentinum, Castrum Vergium. The plural was also used as a place name, as Castra Cornelia, and from this comes the Welsh toponymy prefix caer]] (e.g. Caerleon and Caerwent) and English suffixes -caster and -chester (e.g. Winchester and Lancaster). Castrorum Filius, "son of the camps", was one of the names used by the emperor Caligula and then also by other emperors.
Castro, also derived from Castrum, is a common Spanish family name as well as toponym in Spain and other Hispanophone countries, Italy, and the Balkans, either by itself or in various compounds such as the World Heritage Site of Gjirokastër (earlier Argurokastro). In Greek language, writers used the terms stratopedon ('army camp') and phrourion ('fortification') to translate castrum and castellum, respectively.
At first the center of the camp was determined where the Via Praetoria and the Via Principalis would intersect and thus dividing the camp into northern and southern halves. The intersection of these two roads formed the camp's central point, around which the rest of the layout was measured. Using tools like groma the mensorēs laid out the rectangular perimeter of the camp. The camp was divided into equal quadrants for easy organization and movement. Four gates were positioned at the cardinal points:
The central part of the fortress, lying between the via principalis and the via quintana, was called the latera praetorii and housed the most important buildings. These included the principia (the headquarters), which was aligned to face the main gateway, the praetorium (the residence of the commanding officer), the bathhouse, and the hospital, known as the valetudinarium. Additionally, just inside the defensive walls and running around the entire perimeter of the fortress was another major road, the via sagularis. Smaller streets branched off to connect the various buildings with the main roads.
The Praetentura ("stretching to the front") contained the quarters of officers who were below general but higher than company commanders ( Legati). Near the Principia were the Valetudinarium (hospital), Veterinarium (for horses), Fabrica ("workshop", metals and wood), and further to the front the quarters of special forces. These included Roman navy ("marines", as most European camps were on rivers and contained a river naval command), Equites ("cavalry"), Speculatores ("scouts"), and Vexillarii (carriers of vexilla, the official pennants of the legion and its units). Troops who did not fit elsewhere also were there. The part of the Retentura ("stretching to the rear") closest to the Principia contained the Quaestorium. By the late empire it had developed also into a safekeep for plunder and a prison for hostages and high-ranking enemy captives. Near the Quaestorium were the quarters of the headquarters guard ( Statores), who amounted to two Centuria (companies). If the Imperator was present they served as his bodyguard.
Typically, the barracks were situated in the front and rear areas of the fortress. Each cohort comprised six barrack blocks, positioned in parallel alignment, frequently arranged in facing pairs. However, there is considerable variation in the precise numbers and types of buildings in a fortress, as well as variation in the design, size and proportions of barracks. The buildings were rectangular in plan, measuring 30-100 x 7-15m, and divided into contubernia (usually 10-13 in number). Each contubernium comprised a front and rear room (probably for storage and sleeping respectively). The majority of barracks were equipped with a covered walkway or verandah along the front elevation. Accommodation for Centurions was provided in individual houses, constructed in close proximity to or attached to their barrack block. For the elite first cohort, accommodation was typically located in the latera praeticii area, often in barracks that were slightly larger than those of the other cohorts. Their centurions (the legion's most senior centurions, each in charge of a double-century) enjoyed more substantial and larger residences. The tribunes' houses were even larger and typically followed the design of the civilian peristyle, featuring a series of rooms around a central courtyard.
The villages were generally of three types. The first was the roadside village, where buildings lined the main arterial roads leading to and from the fortress. The second type, known as the tangential village, consisted of structures following a road that passed alongside the camp. The third type was the ring village, where buildings were arranged along a circular by-pass road that encircled the castra. The buildings in these villages were typically long and narrow, with a small frontage facing the street, often featuring a porticus (a covered walkway or porch). The houses were built on elongated plots, with the front sections serving as living quarters, taverns, kitchens, shops, or storage cellars. The rear portions of these properties were used for practical purposes, such as workshops, stables, wells, and latrines, making efficient use of the available space for both residential and commercial needs.
The camp was best placed on the summit and along the side of a low hill, with spring water running in rivulets through the camp ( aquatio) and pastureland to provide grazing ( pabulatio) for the animals. In case of attack, arrows, javelins and sling missiles could be fired down at an enemy tiring himself to come up. For defence, troops could be formed in an acies, or "battle-line", outside the gates where they could be easily resupplied and replenished as well as being supported by archery from the palisade.
The streets, gates and buildings present depended on the requirements and resources of the camp. The gates might vary from two to six and not be centred on the sides. Not all the streets and buildings might be present.
Around midday, the soldiers broke for their lunch, (prandium). This meal typically consisted of bread, porridge, cheese, vegetables, and occasionally meat if supplies allowed. After their meal, the soldiers returned to their duties. Some assisted in administrative tasks such as record-keeping, inventorying supplies, or writing reports. Others worked on construction projects, such as building or repairing barracks, stables, or roads leading to the fortress. Skilled craftsmen among the soldiers might be tasked with forging weapons, making armor, or creating tools.The afternoon often included more training or preparations for future campaigns. Soldiers practiced formations, honed their fighting techniques, and rehearsed strategies under the watchful eyes of their centurions.
As evening approached, the fortress became quieter. Soldiers rotated through their shifts for guard duty, with some standing watch while others rested. The dinner, (cena), was larger and more substantial than the midday meal. After dinner, the soldiers had some personal time (otium). They might write letters to their families, repair their equipment, or engage in games like dice or board games. Storytelling and singing were popular activities, helping to keep morale high. Some soldiers used this time for religious practices, offering sacrifices or prayers to their gods. Before retiring for the night, the watch schedule was finalized, and the gates of the fortress were secured. Soldiers on night guard patrolled the walls, ensuring the safety of the camp throughout the night. Others rested in their barracks, sleeping on simple wooden beds with straw mattresses, ready to begin the routine again at dawn.
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